CHAPTER FOUR: MITIGATION OF HUMAN IMPACT

Introduction

The popularity of the Wilderness has led to numerous problems. Wilderness writer Michael Frome (1984, p. 32) stated,
A heavily used wilderness is no wilderness at all. A lake or valley may be rich in appeal with 10 people present. It may retain most of its appeal with 50, or even 250. But at some point sheer numbers alone transform a wilderness into a housing colony and ultimately an outdoors slum. When 5 campers per summer use an area, building a campfire is a harmless delight. When 500 campers build fires, they provoke an environmental catastrophe.

The San Gorgonio Wilderness Area as the heaviest use per acre of any wilderness area in the United States. It has 20 times as much use per acre as the national average for wilderness acres in the United States (Subcommittee on Public Lands of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, 1965).

Mitigation of the human impact on the San Gorgonio Wilderness has ultimately fallen on the shoulders of three organizations: The United States Forest Service (USFS), the San Bernardino National Forest Association (SBNFA), and the San Gorgonio Wilderness Association (SGWA). The San Bernardino National Forest (SBNF), a subsidiary of the USFS, is primarily responsible for statutory oversight, fire prevention and fire suppression, law and regulation enforcement, animal and plant species protection, and soil and water conservation, all while responding to the growing number of forest visitors and the increased demand for recreation. The SBNFA and the SGWA are nonprofit groups of volunteers, who work side-by-side with the SBNF, not only augmenting the work of the Forest Service, but providing numerous services that the Forest Service does not.

Early Mitigation

Early mitigation efforts took the form of laws and regulations that either set aside land for protection or restricted its use. Robinson (1989) reported that during the early 1870s, the San Bernardino Guardian (March 11, 1871) discussed a new law that would prevent sheep owners “from herding their hungry flocks across private land” (p. 83). There was a loophole in the law, however, which allowed the herds to pasture in unoccupied public lands. Thousands of sheep roamed the mountains, grazing the meadows until they were bare before moving on to other meadows. The overgrazing led to erosion and loss of undergrowth.

As early as the decade of the 1880s, it had become evident that the mountains of southern California did not contain an inexhaustible supply of lumber, unlimited sources of water, and a self-healing watershed. Concerned citizens began to protest to legislators and other public officials in an effort to make them aware of the ecological problems that already existed or were developing. In 1891, Congress passed the Forest Reserve Act, which authorized the President of the United States to set aside forest reserves. The purpose of these reserves was to “protect the remaining timber resources and to insure an adequate flow of water in the streams” (Johanneck, 1975, p. 94). Other legislation was also passed that reserved the public domain for other uses than being exploited for its natural resources (Johanneck, 1975).

Lumbering, grazing, and mining activities continued throughout the mountains, primarily on lands that were privately owned. Several individuals, concerned about the devastation being wreaked on the natural resources of the San Bernardino Mountains, sought help from the government. In 1904, the San Bernardino Board of Trade petitioned Congress to pass legislation to halt the devastation. Following a series of visits to different lumber mills, representatives of the Board of Trade sent a report to Congress accusing the owners of the lumber mills of “destroying the forest by denuding thousands of acres of mountain slopes of timer and earmarking many more thousands of acres for the same fate” (Johanneck, 1975, p. 99). In addition to the felling of the trees, their report described a method of hauling the felled trees that resulted in further devastation:

A powerful “donkey” engine is placed and anchored on the crest of a ridge or hill and a wire cable of great length and strength is made ready to “snake” the logs from all points of the compass. The trees are felled and cut into logs of desired length; the cable is attached, the engine exerts its power and the log moves, plowing the ground and tearing up timber and undergrowth. This operation is repeated until all that particular mountain crest and slope is completely bereft of timber–both large and small. (San Bernardino Board of Trade, 1904, p. 3)

Members of the Board of Trade recognized that the owners of the lumber mills were operating on private lands, and had the right to do whatever they wanted to do on their own lands. However, it was believed that the methods being utilized by these companies were harmful to persons living in the valley and surrounding areas. They included in their report to Congress a recommendation that the privately owned lands “pass under control of an agency of the federal government” (San Bernardino Board of Trade, 1904, p. 4). In addition, they recommended that a method of informing and educating the general public about the issues raised in their report be developed (Johanneck, 1975).

The Board of Trade’s report to Congress also cited fire as another serious threat to the forest. The use of donkey engines, mill engines, and railroad equipment all contributed to conditions that caused devastating fires and posed constant threats to the forest. The blame for the fire threat was not placed solely on the lumbering industry, however. Ranchers and sheepherders were accused of purposely burning tracts of trees in order to create pasturage for the following year (San Bernardino Board of Trade, 1904).

Congress responded to the report of the Board of Trade by creating fire regulations and increasing the number of agents assigned to the forest reserves created a few years before. Up until 1897, the Forest Reserve Act provided for no federal administration or policing of the reserves. Problems were handled long-distance from Washington, D.C., and local problems were often delegated to San Bernardino County officials. B.F. Allen was appointed Special Forest Agent for the Southwest in 1897, and he appointed the first federal officer assigned to the San Bernardino Forest Reserve, Charles Stedman Newhall. Newhall was responsible for tracking down illegal timber cutters, chasing sheep off government lands, and investigating fires. Following Allen’s request for additional manpower, Newhall was allowed to hire two federal rangers for the San Bernardino Mountains, C. Matthew Lewis and William D. Williams. By the end of 1989, seven federal rangers were patrolling the San Bernardino Mountains. Their responsibilities included policing the forest lands, educating the public about fire dangers, building trails, and assisting lost or injured travelers (Robinson, 1989).


The San Bernardino National Forest

Out of the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 which had created the San Bernardino Forest Reserve, came the San Bernardino National Forest in 1907, a name change ordered by Gifford Pinchot, head of the United States Forest Service. The San Bernardino National Forest’s first supervisor was Rushton H. Charlton, who served from 1906 to 1925. During his term, the San Bernardino and San Gabriel National Forests were combined as Angeles National Forest by order of President Theodore Roosevelt, and were administered as one until 1925 (Robinson, 1989).

Charlton initiated many of the programs that are currently in place in national forests throughout the country. He wrote regulations restricting the activities of the lumber industry, further regulated the sheep and cattle grazing, and developed rules for campers. He began work on a network of firebreaks, roads and trails, established a tree nursery to provide seedlings for burn areas, developed improved fire control methods, and worked with the Tri-Counties Reforestation Committee to improve public education (Robinson, 1989).

During the next few decades, focus remained on fire prevention and suppression. Lookouts were built, automobiles replaced horses as the mode of transportation for patrolling the forest, huge, miles-long firebreaks were constructed, and fire control districts were created. During the great depression of the 1930s, state labor camps were opened, providing lodging and meals to unemployed workers who worked on roads, trails, and firebreaks. As part of President Theodore Roosevelt’s New Deal, Congress passed the Emergency Conservation Act. One of the Act’s major provisions created the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), which put unemployed young men to work in the national forests and parks. Several CCC camps were located in the vicinity of the San Gorgonio Wilderness: Camp Radford, Mill Creek Camp, Oak Glen, and Camp Comfort on the Banning Bench. In addition to massive fire prevention projects, the young men of the CCC built campgrounds and picnic areas for forest visitors. The 1940s and 50s saw the Forest Service focus on watershed protection as well as fire prevention.

During the 1960s, the attention of the forest supervisor, Don R. Bauer, began to fall on the challenges of dealing with increased visitation. Robinson (1989) reported that the number of visitors to the San Bernardino National Forest increased from 5.6 million visitors in 1958 to 12.2 million in 1973. In addition to the enlarging of campgrounds and the building of more picnic areas, trails, and winter sports facilities, forest recreational sites were placed on fee basis to help them pay for their own management. Following the passage of the Wilderness Act in 1964, all existing ski huts were removed by the Forest Service in keeping with the requirements of the Act (Ohl, 1987).

Succeeding forest supervisors not only had to deal with the increasing number of forest visitors, but had to work to mitigate the damage and potential damage caused by having forest areas situated close to one of the largest metropolitan areas in the nation. As wilderness usage increased, the parking lot at Poopout Hill was full on a daily basis during the summer months, and dozens of hikers camped in Slushy Meadow. During the late 1960s groups even played volleyball and football there. Campers moved rocks to make crude fireplaces, and quickly stripped the surrounding areas clean of usable firewood. An outhouse existed above the meadows, probably contaminating the watershed. Dollar Lake was littered with beer cans and trash (Subcommittee on Public Lands of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, 1965).

Originally, the South Fork Trail began where it begins now–at the Jenks Lake road. There was a 2 1/2 mile hike up to the top of Poopout Hill, given that name because it was such a long uphill pull. In 1947 the Forest Service revised the wilderness boundary and extended the road up to the summit of Poopout Hill, thus shortening the trail into the Slushy Meadows (Subcommittee on Public Lands of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, 1965). Overuse of South Fork (Slushy) Meadows, the most used part of the Wilderness, led to the closure of the road to Poopout Hill in 1989. Hikers start their trek into the Wilderness at a new parking lot and trailhead located on Jenks Lake Road, go up about a mile and a half up the hill to Horse Meadows, a former horse ranger station. From there, the trail continues another mile before hikers reach the boundary of the wilderness. In addition, all camping at South Fork Meadows is now prohibited. It is hoped that prohibiting camping will the meadows area to rejuvenate itself, thus restoring not only the beauty of the place, but bringing back the pristine quality of the springs from which the Santa Ana River originates (Robinson, 2003).

Forest Plans

In September 2005, the USFS released revised Land Management Plans (Forest Plans) for the national forests of southern California. Included in the Plan for the SBNF are a number of goals that directly affect or relate to the San Gorgonio Wilderness. For example, Goal 1.2.3 is “Maintain long fire-free intervals in habitats which are slow to recover” (USDA Forest Service, 2005d, p. 29). The habitats referred to include the alpine and sub-alpine forests above 8,000 feet in elevation, which would cover much of the upper reaches of the wilderness. Goal 5.2 focuses on improving riparian conditions, a goal that is surely relevant to the San Gorgonio Wilderness, which is the headwaters of two major rivers (the Santa Ana and the Whitewater) and numerous tributaries (USDA Forest Service, 2005d).

Goal 3.2 reads “Retain a natural evolving character within wilderness” (USDA Forest Service, 2005d, p. 37). Within this goal are the desired conditions for wilderness: ecological processes continue untrammeled by human activities, vegetation management mimics natural process (this includes reducing the risks and consequences of wildland fires), increasing or maintaining opportunities for solitude, consideration of air quality and human health, environmental education (connecting people to the values of wilderness resulting in support and stewardship for these values), and science baseline information, or using the wilderness as a benchmark for ecological studies (USDA Forest Service, 2005d).

Several specific programs are outlined in Part 2 of the Forest Plan, which is specific to the San Bernardino National Forest. Conservation Education “will receive a substantial emphasis including a focus on developing land stewardship ethics” (USDA Forest Service, 2005e, p. 143). The Landscape and Scenery Management Program focuses on conserving and restoring “aesthetic, recreation, and open space values, especially those of high-valued landscapes....”(USDA Forest Service, 2005e, p. 144). The Place-Based Program identifies numerous “Places” in the SBNF, including the San Gorgonio Wilderness. Fire is a concern in the Wilderness, due to the history of drought in southern California, the presence of old-age chaparral, and the density of the forest. The highest priority for the SBNF in the San Gorgonio Wilderness is community protection from fire, which will be emphasized through public education, fire prevention, and fuels management. Other priorities for the San Gorgonio “Place” include conserving the habitat of deer and the Nelson’s bighorn sheep, the maintaining or enhancing of wildlife corridors, and the establishment of minimum in-stream flows and groundwater standards (USDA Forest Service, 2005e).

Of special interest to backpackers and hikers who utilize the trails of the San Gorgonio Wilderness is the Forest Service’s plan to acquire land for reroutes of the Pacific Crest National Scenic Trail. The intended purpose of the proposed reroutes is “to improve recreation opportunities and to protect sensitive resources, as well as providing a contiguous land base in the wilderness” (USDA Forest Service, 2005e, p. 79).

Another goal in the Forest Plan that backpackers and hikers will find interesting is the “continued emphasis on preventing establishment of off-route vehicle travel and unauthorized off-trail use by mountain bikes” (USDA Forest Service, 2005e, p. 8).

The Adventure Pass

One of the most important components of the San Bernardino National Forest’s plan is the Adventure Pass. The Adventure Pass program has its roots in the National Performance Review authorized by Vice President Al Gore in 1994 and 1995. With the support of Anthony Williams (Chief Financial Officer and Deputy Secretary of the US Department of Agriculture), a regional recreation fee project for Southern California was accepted as one of the proposals to help government to become more effective and service oriented. The national forests in Southern California (Angeles, Cleveland, Los Padres, and San Bernardino) were involved in several pilot programs under this project. This initial multi-forest effort became known as Enterprise Forest Project #501.

With the passage of PL 104-134, the Recreation Fee Demonstration Program, in 1996, the Enterprise Forest project became one of the first Fee Demonstrations authorized in the Forest Service. Over 25 million people live within two hours of the Southern California National Forests, and the Forest Service faces the huge challenge of dealing with the thousands of people who come to utilize Forest Service facilities. The challenges include dealing with litter, graffiti, and vandalism, cleaning and maintaining public restrooms, protecting the natural resources, and maintaining the various ranger stations, visitor centers, and interpretive sites within the forests.

A large cross-section of forest visitors was surveyed between 1996 and 1997 regarding their willingness to pay for using the forests. Seventy-seven percent of the people surveyed stated they were willing to pay a fee if the money was returned to the forests and used to improve the recreation sites and opportunities in the forests.

In 1996, legislation was passed which authorized federal agencies to keep 80 percent of the revenue to reinvest in the area where the fees were collected. The Adventure Pass program was born. Prior to passage of this law, fees were returned to the U.S. Treasury. The Southern California’s national forests have been able to keep more than 95% of all revenues collected. From May 1997 through September 2005, more than $23,822,000 has been collected and retained for improving these 4 national forests (USDA Forest Service, 2005c).

The Adventure Pass is a vital part of the recreation fee program for the San Bernardino National Forest. Volunteers with the San Gorgonio Wilderness Association sell these passes at the Mill Creek Ranger Station, the Big Falls Station in Forest Falls, and the Barton Flats Visitor Center. In addition, Adventure Passes are also sold at several stores in Forest Falls, Angelus Oaks, and Seven Oaks.

Proceeds from the sale of Adventure Passes were used in six main categories: Ranger programs, restrooms, trails, facilities, forest health, and information. The field ranger program was revitalized, providing important services such as extinguishing illegal or abandoned campfires, providing emergency assistance, talking with forest visitors, and enforcing federal regulations. In the four Southern California national forests, Adventure Pass proceeds have enabled the Forest Service to provide 41 paid field rangers have been available to perform these services (USDA Forest Service, 2005c). One full-time field ranger, Sharon Barfknecht, is assigned to the San Gorgonio Wilderness.

Between 1996 and 2004, the Forest Service has been able to add over 600 portable toilets, repair over a thousand, and retrofit 53 public restrooms for use by persons with disabilities. In addition, the permanent restroom facilities have been cleaned four times as often as they were before the Adventure Pass program began. These include facilities at Barton Flats Visitor Center, Big Falls Station, and several key San Gorgonio Wilderness trailheads.

When the survey was conducted in 1996 and 1997, it was learned that forest visitors expected better trails. Adventure Pass proceeds have been used to provide repair and maintenance to almost 3,000 miles of trails, to refurbish 39 trailheads and campsites, and to repair and maintain 18 OHV (Off-Highway Vehicle) staging areas. The Forest Service personnel assigned to maintain the trails of the San Gorgonio Wilderness are augmented by volunteers from the San Gorgonio Wilderness Association. In addition to weekend patrols during the summer months, one day each June is set aside for all the volunteers in the association to work on a specific trail within the wilderness.

Another key finding from the 1996-1997 survey was the demand for the repair and upgrade of Forest Service facilities. In responding to that demand, the Forest Service refurbished over 500 picnic sites, several of which are in close proximity to the San Gorgonio Wilderness at Big Falls, adjacent to the Vivian Creek Trailhead, and Jenks Lake, near the South Fork Trailhead. Over 1300 campsites were refurbished, including sites at six campgrounds near the wilderness boundaries. At least 400 bear-proof trash containers were placed in campgrounds, and over 7,600 traffic-control devices, such as barriers, curbs, and fencing, were placed. All of these improvements were made possible through the sale of Adventure Passes.
Since the survey respondents also expected cleaner forests, money from the Adventure Pass program has been used to remove over 51,000 cubic yards of trash and litter from Forest Service sites. At least 170 abandoned car bodies have been removed from locations throughout the four Southern California National Forests, and removed graffiti from nearly 6,000 sites.

Forest visitors and managers agreed that providing information was important, and the Forest Service embarked on a huge public education project. In 2005, 20 information and interpretive sites were staffed by 39 full-or part time rangers, who made contact with almost 200,000 visitors. The Adventure Pass proceeds also help pay for 117 informational kiosks and 59 different forms of media such as handouts, brochures, newsletters, and audio-visual programs (USDA Forest Service, 2005g).


The San Bernardino National Forest Association

The San Bernardino National Forest Association, while not working directly in the San Gorgonio Wilderness, has as part of its mission activities which benefit the forest in general. The Association runs the San Bernardino National Forest Fire Lookout Program, which staffs seven mountaintop lookouts (with two more pending). The lookouts serve a dual purpose: keeping an eye out for smoke and fire, and welcoming visitors in order to “increase public awareness and create a desire among visitors to conserve and help care for public lands” (Fire Lookout Host Program, 2005, §1).


The San Gorgonio Wilderness Association

The organization which works directly in and for the San Gorgonio Wilderness is the San Gorgonio Wilderness Association (SGWA). The SGWA uses volunteers and donations to provide many services that were formerly provided by the USFS. Volunteers lead nature walks and conduct interpretive programs, completely staff and manage the Barton Flats Visitor Center, augment the staff at the Mill Creek Ranger Station, staff the Big Falls Station and the Horse Meadows Historical Site, sell Adventure Passes, issue wilderness hiking and camping permits, patrol trails throughout the wilderness to assist visitors, clean up campsites, pick up litter, and call in emergency medical care, and construct and maintain trails throughout the wilderness (San Gorgonio Wilderness Association, 1996-2006c). The SGWA was created out of a response to the continued threat from ski associations to develop the north slopes of Mount San Gorgonio. It was originally called the Defenders of the San Gorgonio Wilderness, and they spent almost a decade working tirelessly to defeat developers’ plans to bring skiing and development into the wilderness. The name of the organization changed first to the San Gorgonio Volunteer Association, then to the San Gorgonio Wilderness Association in 2000 (San Gorgonio Wilderness Association, 1996-2006c).

An equestrian group supports and is supported by the SGWA. These are also volunteers, who patrol the trails of the wilderness and along the Santa Ana River, interacting with visitors, packing in survey teams, and maintaining the trails.

A two-person Forest Service trail crew, augmented by volunteers from the SGWA is funded by proceeds from sales of the Adventure Pass (USDA Forest Service, 2004). The trail crew spends its weekends on various trails within the wilderness, cutting and moving trees and vegetation, repairing trails damaged by overuse and erosion, repairing and restoring wilderness campsites, removing avalanche debris, and other maintenance tasks. The trail crew’s work is made more difficult by the restrictions on mechanized equipment–no motorized saws are allowed, so everything is done by hand. Each summer, the first Saturday in June is designated as National Trails Day. Sponsored by the American Hiking Society, the day is set aside for organizations to plan and hold events such as hikes, bike or OHV rides, trail maintenance or restoration projects, children’s programs, or other trail-related activities. The SGWA and the SBNF organize a trail maintenance and restoration activity on one of the trails in the San Gorgonio Wilderness. Following a major avalanche in the winter of 2005, the June National Trails Day was spent removing the debris from the Johns Meadow Trail.

Recent and Current Mitigation

In March 1998, the San Bernardino National Forest began an Environmental Assessment for Wilderness Management (EAWM). Over a 10-year period, an interdisciplinary team developed recommendations to enhance the wilderness experience and improve wilderness resources for the Cucamonga, San Gorgonio, San Jacinto, and Santa Rosa Wilderness areas. In the fall of 1998, San Bernardino National Forest Supervisor Gene Zimmerman announced changes to wilderness management practices, following the recommendations of the EAWM. Maximum group size was reduced to 12, day and overnight use quotas were slightly reduced, packstock group size was reduced to 8, and all grazing by packstock was forbidden. Packstock food would have to be packed in. Since a Desert Bighorn Sheep herd lived in the southeastern portion of the San Gorgonio Wilderness, goats were banned. Due to the loss of fuel and damage to trees surrounding wilderness campsites, open campfires were banned, and campstoves were required that met stringent fire-prevention guidelines (San Gorgonio Wilderness Association, 1996-2006a).

At the beginning of March 2005, the Forest Service decided to close the Big Falls Recreation Area and the Vivian Creek and Momyer Creek trailheads in Forest Falls in order to clear out some of the dead trees. Throughout much of April, helicopters flew in and out of the canyon, carrying dead trees off the steep canyon walls. With the trailheads in Forest Falls closed, along with a short closure of the San Bernardino Peak trailhead in March 2005, many of the Wilderness trails received much less hiking pressure for approximately three months. Most spring hikers accessed the Wilderness via the Forsee Creek trail, as the South Fork and Fish Creek gateways were still covered with snow. (Snowshoers continued to use all the trails throughout the winter and spring of 2004-2005).

Since the early 1900s, various citizen groups and organizations have recognized that increased visitation and usage of the San Gorgonio Wilderness required intervention. Mitigation of that damage has fallen on the United States Forest Service, the San Bernardino National Forest Association and the San Gorgonio Wilderness Association. The three organizations impart and enforce regulations to protect the wilderness, educate the public, provide physical resources to repair and maintain trails and campsites, and prevent catastrophic damage by wildfires.